MALTINGS IN NOTTINGHAMSHIRE The Malting Process
Malt is artificially germinated grain (usually barley) with the germination arrested at a certain point in order to conserve the saccharine which is in the budding grain. In brewing the saccharine is fermented with yeast and is turned into alcohol. Malt is also used in distilled alcohol, malt vinegar and products using malt extracts. The traditional methods of obtaining malt by floor malting has now largely been superseded by pneumatic malting which can produce malt in just over a week. The old method required at least two weeks and usually more. Some floor malting is still carried out, but the process now takes less time. Malting has a long history. In fact, malt has been made in some form ever since grain (and in particular barley) has been used in the making of ale and beer. Specific documentary references date back to the medieval period. At this time and even into the 18th century the production of malt was generally on a small scale and often almost domestic. Many inns would have produced enough malt for their own use. As the 18th century progressed, the demand for malt increased and it became practical to build larger and independent malthouses. The initial factor in the production of malt was the quality of the barley, because only the better grain could be malted. At the beginning of the 18th century malting depended mainly upon the skill and experience of the maltster, but during the 18th century scientific knowledge increased. Until means were developed for artificially controlling temperature, the best time for malting was during the cooler months from October to May. During this period temperatures could be controlled more easily and the necessary regular germination could be obtained. This pattern suited the rhythm of the harvest and was the one forced upon the brewers and distillers, who needed the cooler temperatures for fermentation. In exceptional years malting might be carried on throughout the summer, for example 1830-31. Similarly very cold weather in winter might interrupt the process. Generally malting remained allied with brewing and was sometimes under the same management and sometimes on the same site. Nevertheless independent maltsters flourished by supplying many different customers, who did not make enough malt for their own requirements, including brewers who did not malt at all. The Malting Industry There are two methods of producing malt: 1. by the traditional English method of floor malting and; 2. by pneumatic (mechanical) malting. Most space will be devoted to floor malting because that method was the one in use for the majority of the period here under consideration. The pneumatic system was not introduced until the 1870s and its use in Britain did not become widespread. Maltings of either type took up a considerable amount of space and during the latter part of the 18th century and the 19th century malthouses increased considerably in size. Thus on the whole they are not found in the centres of towns, but on the outskirts, adjacent to waterways and railways, or in the town's commercial district. The size of a malthouse was judged by the number of quarters of barley which could be steeped at one time. For example the malthouse in Raglan Road, Retford, was a 16 quarter steep house. The Buildings for Floor Malting
This method was space intensive and necessitated a rectangular building of several storeys. The height between the floor and the ceiling was six feet or even less. In the outside walls were regularly spaced small square windows, which served as ventilators and were fitted with louvres. At one end of this building were the cisterns, usually at least two in number. (The cisterns were containers, in which the water for soaking the grain was held). At the opposite end of the building to the cisterns were the kilns. Ideally the malthouse was to be of a strong, solid construction. The best dimensions for the growing floor were that the length of the floor should always exceed the breadth by at least two to one. If the breadth was greater than fifty feet, it was difficult, if not impossible to regulate the temperature or ensure that the floor had adequate access to fresh air. In order to obtain the greatest floor space possible, the supporting pillars were reduced to a minimum. It was important to ensure an adequate supply of cool moist air. In order to obtain this it was desirable that the growing floor should be below ground level. (In fact this was not usually always practicable). The growing floors could be of a variety of materials, but by the 1880s tiles were the most esteemed. Other materials used included slate, concrete, brick, asphalt, stone, clunch, iron, cement and wood. It was considered that cemen1 was probably the best. Wood was certainly the worst and stone and clunch were reasonably good flooring materials. As for the cisterns, ideally four in number, these could be of a number of materials - iron, slate or brick. It was essential that the cisterns were of adequate dimensions as the grain could expand by up to thirty per cent during steeping. The cisterns could be of several shapes: cylindrical, conical or rectangular and the later ones had conical bases for discharging the grain. Prior to the introduction of these hopper bases, the cisterns were emptied by shovels. The hoppers enabled the steeped grain to be run straight onto the growing floors. Furthermore it was advantageous if the cisterns were placed with their upper parts near the storage bins. Finally it was better for the cisterns to be located so that they were not exposed to extremes of temperature. When germinated to the required extent the grain was moved from the growing floor to the kilns, where it was dried. For the majority of the 19th century and during the preceding centuries malt kilns in Britain had only one drying floor. In 1881 two drying floors were introduced but do not seem to have been widely adopted. Stopes in 1885 considered kilns should be lofty structures constructed of brick with a large roof surmounted by a cowl. Large kilns were best rectangular or square, but small ones could be round. (None of this shape appear to have survived in Nottinghamshire nor probably ever existed). The kiln roof was usually of slate or tile and the inside was lathed and plastered. A variety of materials have been used for the kiln floor. Horse hair woven into a coarse mesh was probably introduced in the 16th century and was used for kiln floors at least until the 18th century, Another early floor material was perforated wooden boards. By the 19th century these were being replaced by more suitable materials: earthenware tiles, cast iron tiles and woven wire. The last mentioned was considered the best because it gave the greatest air surface, but it was comparatively frail. Tiles on the other hand were more durable, but allowed less air to pass through. Iron tiles were generally considered not very good because they could easily become too hot. Whatever type of tiles was used, it was essential that there were no uneven surfaces. The kiln was heated by a furnace. Originally this would simply have been a brick grate or open fire basket placed in a central position beneath the kiln floor. A sparkstone was usually placed between the furnace and the floor. This spread the heat more evenly and kept sparks from the floor which was particularly important when this was made of horse hair or wood. Later on the furnace became more complex. It was enclosed by a brick chimney with doors to the front. The chimney flue ended in a low heat chamber beneath the kiln floor. The sparkstone was still retained between the flue opening and the kiln floor. A great variety of fuels have been used in furnaces: coke, anthracite, ordinary coal, lignite, charcoal, peat, wood, oak and beech, brushwood, furze and straw. The last mentioned was thought by Stopes to be the worst kind of fuel. The best fuels were coke and anthracite, because they were smokeless. Oakwood was sometimes used by the makers of brown malt and beech wood was of value for flavouring pale and amber malts. It was advantageous for a malthouse to have its own storage facilities for barley and malt. Before it was stored it was essential that the barley was dry. Sometimes a special kiln was built for this purpose, although in the older maltings the barley was usually dried in the malt kiln when that was not in use. Barley was never to be stored in sacks, because there was inadequate ventilation. The grain was ideally stored in granaries or silos. The storage bins were to be found on the upper floors of the malting. It was best to make the bins out of wood because it kept the grain dry, (the walls absorbed the moisture), but the wood could become infested with pests. The bins in the older maltings were only filled to a depth of about three feet and the grain in them was turned up by hand from time to time. It was necessary to check that the grain did not become heated and this checking was done with a metal pro be. Silos were only attached to the more modern maltings. A variety of implements were used in malting, although prior to the 19th century the tools and apparatus were more limited. The tools used included shovels, usually of wood, forks of wood or of iron, wheel barrows; 'sieves' for collecting the light corns off the cisterns. More mechanical apparatus included filters for ensuring cleaner water in the cisterns, grain cleaning machines, malt screens for removing radicles from the malt and machines for cleaning and polishing it, weighing machines, conveyors and elevators for moving the barley and malt around the malthouse. The Floor Malting Process
The first process in malting is steeping in the cistern to begin germination. Originally many of the malthouses were fed by nearby streams and rivers or springs. In cold weather this would often have been below 40F and barley steeped at such a temperature had its growth retarded. The higher the temperature, the greater the uptake of water by the barley. A higher temperature also meant that the water had to be changed more often, at least every twenty four hours. The first change was preferably made after only twelve hours. It was important that the water for steeping was organically pure, otherwise unwanted changes developed in the malt which were detrimental in brewing. According to Stopes maltsters preferred an alkaline steeping water because it removed resins and tanins which impaired the quality of the beer. It was generally considered best if the water was put in first and then the barley was added. Old barley took longer to steep than new barley and a barley off a stiff, heavy soil needed more soaking than one grown on a light soil. It was necessary to aerate the grain during steeping and this was usually done by exposing the barley to the air for a couple of hours when the steepwater was being changed. It was important not to oversteep the barley - this was positively harmful and although under-steeping was not desirable, it could be remedied by sprinkling with water whilst the malt was on the floor. The main object of steeping was to give the corn about to be malted sufficient moisture to ensure perfect and regular germination. The steep time varied from two to three days. At the end of the steeping period the water was drawn off and usually the barley was left in the cistern for half a day to allow a little heat to generate in the grain. Barley was considered to have taken up sufficient water if the grain opened readily when squeezed and it could be seen that the moisture had penetrated practically to the centre. (The moisture content should have reached 40-45 per cent). The next step in the malting process was couching, although this was only essential so long as the malt tax was in existance. The couch itself was a square wooden receptacle and the barley was kept there for twenty or thirty hours. It was at this stage that the grain was measured by the excise officer, as it had then achieved its maximum swelling. If the grain was not couched, it was simply allowed to remain in the cistern for half a day. In hot weather care had to be taken to ensure that the barley did not become too warm. From the couch, the grain was spread out upon the floor. In the earlier periods, up to and including the 18th century, this was done by shovel. By the later part of the 19th century however, wheel barrows with rubber tyres were being used to distribute the grain to the various parts of the floor. The grain was spread in a layer four to eigh inches deep. The barley lay on the floor whilst germination proceeded. The grain was turned at regular intervals with a wide shovel. Barley which had not been on the floor long, was turned less frequently because the roots were more fragile. Practice was needed for turning the malt and according to Stopes this meant that the workmen had to have a pride and honesty in their work. It was apparently a common practice in large malthouses to allot particular pieces to certain men. The turning and tossing in the air helped to aerate the grain and prevented the roots from matting together. Turning also helped to keep the temperature constant. It was also important to protect the malt from the light and it was for this reason that the windows were fitted with louvres. In fact the manipulation of these ventilators was an important part of floor malting and was one of the maltsters most subtle arts. It was necessary to guard against crushing or otherwise injuring the grains with foot or shovel. In many malthouses it was a strict rule that all men working a floor should be barefoot or wear felt slippers and later in the 19th century, rubber boots. Once a floor was turned it was the practice of good maltsters to sweep up between pieces, with great care and to turn back the outer edge of each piece sufficiently thickly to ensure as nearly as possible a uniform heat for the edges which might otherwise have grown cold from their greater exposure to the air. It was unusual for the malt to be on the floor for "less than eight days or more than twenty four days, for brewing, but when it was used for distilling, the barley was occasionally malted for less than eight days. Whatever time was taken, the barley was malted until the shoot protruded just beyond the end of the grain. To achieve this the malt sometimes had to be sprinkled with water whilst it was on the growing floor. In fact certain barleys benefitted from this practice, especially the very steely or rough coarse grains from stiff clay soils. These, in bad seasons, were often weak during early growth and the right amount of sprinkling was considered desirable. (Reynolds thought that in sprinkling, three quarts of water ought to be applied to every bushel of grain). The next stage was usually only carried out prior to the second half of the 19th century. It was withering. (Only the older malthouses had a withering loft). The main aim of withering was to arrest or even to stop growth and to dissipate moisture. The more modern malthouses, with much improved kiln facilities, made withering unnecessary. The Kilning Process
The final stage in malting was drying in the kiln. This was the stage at which most of the differences were given to the malt for example colour and flavour. When the malt went into the kiln it was supposed to be very white in colour. (Withered malt was ready for distilling without kilning). The malt was loaded onto the kiln floor to a depth of about three to four inches in the 18th and early 19th centuries. By the end of the latter century the efficiency of the kilns had been so improved that it was possible to load the malt to a depth of eight or nine inches. It was desirable to have perfect control of the kiln temperature but this was only achieved in the second half of the 19th century. On the whole it was usual to turn the malt whilst it was on the kiln floor. Kilning generally lasted four days, by which time the moisture content had been reduced to about two to four per cent. The Final Stages in Malting
Once the malt had been kilned it still had to undergo further treatment before it could be used in the manufacture of beer. The rootlets were removed because they impaired the flavour of the beer and because they were hydroscopic. Originally they were removed by men wearing heavy boots or clogs provided with six or eight little blades, treading the malt. By the end of the 19th century a rotary screen system had been designed for removing the roots. After that the malt was often 'polished' to improve its appearance. As freshly kilned malt was unsuitable for mashing (one of the brewing processes) it was best to store it for one to three months. During this period of storage it was essential that the moisture content did not increase beyond five per cent, as the malt would then become moist. Such malt was disliked by brewers as it was difficult to grind. Pneumatic Malting
In pneumatic malting the initial process of steeping the barley in the cistern was the same as for floor malting, as was the kilning. It was only the germination of the malt which took place under different conditions. This system had a number of advantages over ordinary floor malting. The area occupied by such maltings was considerably less than that occupied by floor malting. This reduction in size and increase in mechanisation meant a smaller labour force. Mechanisation also meant that external factors such as moisture and temperature could be more easily controlled. This in turn meant that malting could be carried on all the year round, and because the grain was handled less often, fewer grains were crushed by feet or shovels. There were two main disadvantages to pneumatic maltings: high capital cost of erecting the plant and a high consumption of power. Pneumatic maltings never seem to have been as popular in England as on the Continent and by 1885 there were only five in the whole of Great Britain, one of which was in Nottinghamshire. Certainly very few seem to have been built in the County and a malthouse built as late as 1903/4 in Newark was a floor malting. There were two main types of pneumatic malting: drum and compartment. 1. Drum Malting This particular type was invented by a Belgian, Galland. Usually eight drums were used and they were constructed of perforated metal or woven wire and rotated on rollers. Each unit consisted of two cylinders rotated at different speeds. The smaller cylinder served as an air conduit, capable of exhaustion, whilst a fixed valve within it prevented suction of air through that part of the circumference, which was not covered by the grain. The only problems with these drums were the uncleaned and inaccesible parts. Thus the barley, after being steeped in the usual way was discharged into the germinating drum (described above). Turning of the piece was carried out by simply rotating the drum, but it was essential that the roots did not become entangled, as turr.ing then became impossible. In the drum the piece had to be maintained at an even temperature without sweating. This was achieved by blowing through the piece large volumes of cool moist air. This ensured that the piece did not dry out. If, unfortunately the barley did dry out, it was easier to increase the moisture control in this type of malting, than in floor malting. 2. Compartment Malting This system was invented by a French engineer, Saladin and consequently became, known as the Saladin box system. There were usually eight rectangular boxes, with perforated false bottoms, for the eight days of malting. The boxes were preferably housed in a room at least nine feet high, as there was a considerable amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and it was very important that the condensation did not drop back onto the malt. It was essential to leave passages between the boxes, so that there was easy access. In this system the steeped barley was transferred from the cisterns to the boxes by means of an overhead pipe. The grain was about 25 inches deep in the boxes and air was blown under the piece by means of a fan. The piece was turned three times a day and transferred from one box to the next each day. In a small malting this turning was done by hand. Of these two methods of pneumatic malting, the drum system required a higher outlay than the box system. It was more difficult to work because the perforated air channels easily became choked. Apart from that the turning of the piece in drum malting was simple and more efficient. The Malting Industry in Nottinghamshire
There is no doubt that malting was an important and old-established industry in Nottinghamshire, although there is little supporting documentary evidence. Besides the malting industry in the villages of Nottinghamshire, there appear to have been five main centres: Nottingham, Mansfield, Newark, Retford and Worksop in the 18th and 19th Centuries. Most of the malting done in Nottinghamshire was done by the floor malting method, the process described in section one. According to Stopes, however, there was one pneumatic malting in the County at Beeston and there may have been others, but there appears to be no record of them now. Outwardly, some of Nottinghamshire's malthouses may seem very different, but the malting process carried on in them was the same, although each maltster would have had his own particular way of doing certain things and Stopes even refers to the Newark method. As to the buildings in which the County's malting was carried on, the majority were of brick, although stone was used and two examples of malthouses in this building material survive in Midworth Street, Mansfield and one near the Chesterfield Canal in Worksop. The roofs of the malthouses were usually either of slate or pantile, although in some of these of which the use has changed, have ordinary tile or corrugated asbestos or felt roofs. Basically, malthouses were rectangular in shape, but there were variations, especially with regard to the location of the kilns. The more complex units were usually located in the towns. The simple rectangular malthouses are the only type found in the rural areas but they do also form a proportion of those in towns. Approximately sixty malthouses still survive in the County (twenty four of which are in Newark), although this number is being decreased by demolition, in particular in the urban areas. Of these sixty, one is still in use: Peach's (Gough's) Malting, Northgate, Newark. A number were in use until fairly recently: one in Sherwood Road, Worksop; Baird's Malting, Northgate, in use until 1975, as was Shipston's Malting at Beeston. None of the County's rural maltings are still in use, although some were in use until the late 1960s. Malting in Nottingham
Prior to the 18th century there would have been few large commercial maltings and until then Nottingham was probably the main centre of the malting industry in the county. The early maltings in Nottingham were in the caves. Only fairly small units could be accommodated, but these were of the usual type, with cisterns, growing floors and kilns. The advantage of malting in the rock cellars was the constant temperature which facilitated regular germination. This meant that the malting process could be carried on all the year round, instead of only between October and May. During the second half of the 18th century it became more common for new maltings to be built above ground. In the 18th century and in the first half of the 19th century, Nottingham was an important malting centre. Much of the grain came from the Vale of Belvoir and the malt produced was widely distributed, to Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire and the Derbyshire Peak. Many of the above ground, 19th century maltings had a fairly central position and not surprisingly they have now been demolished for redevelopment. Besides Nottingham having 25 to 30 or more maltings, some malting concerns of other Nottinghamshire towns had their head offices in the city. During the 19th century Nottingham's prominent position in the county's malting industry was challenged by Newark and in the north of the county Worksop and Retford were important centres.